Origins and Causes of the Cold War free essay sample

Harry Truman and Woodrow Wilson came up with the term ‘Cold War’ to describe the breakdown in relations between the two superpowers at the time-the United States of America and the Soviet Union. Historian Walter Lippman, his friend used it in the New York herald Tribune-which marked it’s introduction in popular media. This mutual antagonism between the two nations manifested itself, not in all-out war but in attacks through economic sanctions, proxy wars, the building of alliances propaganda warfare, enmeshed in an overarching principle of non-cooperation. In this context, before delving into the causes, which this essay seeks to do, it is imperative to note that the fact that the two superpowers fought on the same side during World War II was nothing but a ‘marriage of convenience,’ where they were united against the common enemy rather than on grounds of a common cause. The suspicions, ensuing due to the differences in ideology and motives on the global scale had not been occluded by any means, merely erased for the time being. We will write a custom essay sample on Origins and Causes of the Cold War or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page To fully understand the origins of the Cold War and the breakdown in relations,it is necessary for us to consider the Yalta, Potsdam and Tehran conferences that occurred towards the dying stages of the Second World War. The Tehran Conference held in 1943 was attended by Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin and even though, the leaders went to Tehran with different goals in mind, the quintessential objective, which was to open a second front against Germany, was achieved. The ‘big three’ met again in Yalta in February, 1945. Relations again seemed cordial and the three leaders agreed on various key points, such as the formation of the United Nations, punishment of the Nazi war criminals, the division of Germany and Berlin into four zones, the holding of free elections in Eastern Europe. Yet, there were perilous signs foreshadowing the origin of the Cold War as the three disagreed about what was to be done about Poland. Stalin’s demand that the Soviet Union should be given all land east of the Oder-Neisse Line was not taken too favorably by the other two leaders. When they met at Potsdam again in July 1945, relations were not so amicable. Various changes had taken place in the international stage since Yalta. Firstly, the Soviet Union’s Red Army had taken control of the Baltic States under the pretext of liberating them. Secondly, both the United States and Great Britain had different leaders representing them. Attlee replaced Churchill and Truman replaced Roosevelt. Both the new leaders were far more suspicious of Stalin and his ‘red agenda’ than their predecessors had been. Fourthly, the Americans had already tested an atom bomb on July 16, 1945. While Stalin was informed of this development at the conference, the motive behind the Manhatten Project was a manifestation of the suspicion the leaders harbored towards the Communist as they wanted to ensure that Japan was invaded by them and not the Soviet Union. Truman also disagreed with Stalin’s request for a ‘Soviet sphere of influence’ and kept on pressing for free elections in the liberated states of Eastern Europe, which Stalin objected to on grounds of Soviet security. The expansion of the USSR east of the Oder-Neisse line in Poland remained a topic of dispute. This view became more popular during the 1960s and 1970s as the inherent paranoia regarding both the external and internal Communist Threat, better known as ‘The Red Scare,’ propounded by the Senator Joseph McCarthysubsided in the United States and people become exceptionally critical of American foreign policywith the emergence of the Vietnam War. The third view, which is accepted by most historians across the globe, including this author is the post-revisionist view, which says that it would be unfair to blame the origin of the Cold War on any of the sides without placing equal blame on the other. Furthermore, to fully understand, the causes behind the Cold War, we need to consider a multitude of factors. Firstly, the World War II had a detrimental impact on the economies of both Britain and France and neither of them were the superpowers they had once been. Thus, the USA and the USSR were now the remaining superpowers, two superpowers, which had starkly different and almost contradictory ideologies on government and economics. The Soviet system of government was a Communist one based on the Marxist principles of equality and the welfare state, which involved central planning at the expense of individual freedom. On the other hand, the United States was a capitalist democracy, which espouses the ownership of private wealth, embedded in the pursuit of profits, at the expense of economic disparity. This also led to a breakdown in communication. Every act was construed by the other superpower to be a propaganda move to thwart the other. The Truman Doctrine, which vowed to provide military aid to European states from internal or external aggression and the Marshall Plan, largely responsible for the economic rebuilding of Europe were interpreted, perhaps rightly, by the Soviet Union as means of spreading USA’s capitalist agenda. Stalin responded to the ‘capitalist expansionist’ agenda of the Marshall Plan by setting up the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) to economically aid the members of the Eastern Block. ‘ACTION AND REACTION:COLD WAR CONFLICTS FROM 1945-1960 Each superpower wanted to spread their specific ideology and contain the other’s, which resulted in a number of propaganda measures, alliancesand proxy wars. The first major cold war conflict was the Berlin blockade and airlift of 1948-49. Stalin cut of all transport links to West Berlin, which was under Allied Control, thus cutting of all food supplies to the city. Truman ordered an airlift with food supplies through B-52 bombers, thus ensuring that the population and autonomy of the zone were kept alive. In 1949, Stalin called of the blockade. The ‘iron curtain’-which was a symbol of both ideological and physical division between Eastern and Western Europe became permanent and the arms race started to pick up pace. The western nations were convinced of what a potential threat the Soviets could be, which prompted the USA to supplement its military deployment with political affiliations by signing the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in April, 1949, emphasizing the principle of collective self-defense. This, along with the rearmament of The Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany, which was in the Allied Zone) was met with the creation of the Warsaw Pact in 1955. The Soviets also set up a Communist Information Bureau (Cominform), which served as a forum that gathered all communist Eastern Bloc nations. Throughout the 1950s, both countries continued to build up their military arsenal- of both conventional and nuclear weapons. This form of action and reaction due to high levels of suspicion and hostility towards the other played a key role in laying the foundations of the Cold War that ensued. The final Cold War Conflict of the 1950s which laid down the foundation for the tension that would exist in a divided Europe for the next forty years was the Berlin Crisis, which ensued from 1958-61. In 1961, The Soviet Union constructed a wall between east and West Germany in the heart of Berlin. Khrushchev claimed that it was an attempt to curb the expansion of western influence of fascist attempting to influence the mindset of the people of East Germany through brainwashing and coercion. However, most historians believe that it was simply an attempt to curb the exodus of many immigrants (a number that has been pegged at 3. 5 million before the construction of The Wall) to West Germany, which was doing much better economically.

Fromms Humanistic Psychoanalysis

Fromms Humanistic Psychoanalysis As described by Fromm, human beings suffer from basic anxiety as a result of human dilemmas. These are feelings such as loneliness, isolation, and homelessness that are brought about by human separation from their natural world. This triggers a mechanism aimed at reducing the uncomfortable feelings. Jeff and Ann live in Cleveland, which is far away from their home town and family.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Fromm’s Humanistic Psychoanalysis specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More They strive hard to reunite with their family by visiting them during Christmas and New Year holiday seasons. This sense of unity is attributed to the human need for rootedness and relatedness. Rootedness refers to the urge that motivates individuals to rediscover themselves and enjoy living in the world once more after separation for a long time. For relatedness, people aspire to unite with others either through marriage or forming clo se relationships. This is based on three dimensions: submission, power, and love. By submitting to one another, a group, or an institution, one gets united with the natural world. Relative to attaining power, people become more dependent on one another and less independent. Lastly, love creates a unification between individuals but still observes the veracity of separation among individuals (McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2002). In regard to transcendence needs, Fromm described it as the urge for people to overcome passive and the accidental existence by creating or destroying life. This is triggered by human beings who are cast into the natural world without their approval. Therefore, they transcend nature either by creating or destroying it for various reasons. As far as the sense of identity is concerned, self consciousness is seen as a different object altogether. People are identified by the roles they play in the society. The sense of identity in most people is tied to their at tachment to others or institutions like religion, occupation, social groups, and others. Jeff and Ann identify themselves with their occupations. Their sense of identity is based on their unique talents, which that benefit their institution and makes them feel confident with their careers. In regard to the frame of orientation, Jeff and Ann view the natural world as a place that requires more development. This is attributed to the fact that they encourage their children to leave the world a better place than they found it. On the basis of character orientation, Fromm would classify Jeff and Ann as belonging to the â€Å"productive orientation†. In this case, they are committed to enhancing their growth and development, as well as those of others. This is guided by their hard work, love, and good reasoning. Fromm’s humanistic psychological theory is significantly related to other psychological theories. First, it is closely related to behavioral psychological theory. Th is theory states that behavior is acquired by conditioning. In addition, conditioning is controlled by the immediate surroundings. People are conditioned to embrace the behaviors of their natural world where they live or were brought up. Jeff and Ann experienced difficulties in adjusting to a new environment far away from their home and family.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Loneliness, isolation, and homelessness amongst other behaviors developed as a result of being separated from their natural world. In regards to Andrea’s case, she finds hardships to bond with her family, and this was developed since she was small. This is further worsened by staying far away from home. Fromm’s theory is related to cognitive psychology theory. People are predominantly occupied by their previous experiences in their natural world. In experiencing new environments and infor mation, people should modify, add, or change their previous experience. This is controlled by their mental and character orientation that helps them assimilate and accommodate the new environment. For instance, a childs previous exposure to small dogs would tend to shape the child’s mentality that dogs are small. In case the child encounters a big dog, he would absorb this new information and modify the previous information to include this new one. This transition would involve assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is absorbing new experiences into the previously existing one whereas accommodation is altering or changing the previous existing into the light of the new environment. Jeff and Ann have to assimilate and accommodate living in a new environment that is far from the previous environment. From Andrea’s perspective, she dreads visiting her remaining family due to the previous experience that she claims continues to persist. Furthermore, Maslow’s a nd Roger’s humanistic psychology theories relate to that of Fromm. These theories are comprised of human needs that control human existence. According to Fromm’s theory, human needs include rootedness, relatedness, transcendence, and identity. Theses relate with those of Maslow’s theory especially the social needs. They concentrate more on relationships, sense of belonging, love, and affection in the social institutions mostly families. Jeff and Ann miss being with their family and they utilize this opportunity once it arises during the holiday seasons. Lastly, Fromm’s theory also relates to the personality psychology theory. This theory targets the behavioral patterns and mental states or judgments, which makes one to stand out from the rest. According to Fromm’s theory, people should portray their uniqueness to define their sense of identity or personality. Jeff and Ann develop their identity from their unique talents in their occupations (Ashcra ft, 2012).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Fromm’s Humanistic Psychoanalysis specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More References Ashcraft, D. M. (2012). Personality theories workbook. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. (2002). Psychodynamic Theories Fromm: Humanistic Psychoanalysis. Retrieved from: http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0072316799/student_view0/part2/chapter7/chapter_outline.html

The challenge of managing diverse teams Assignment - 2

The challenge of managing diverse teams - Assignment Example The group does leverage on the skills of fellow group members as opposed to the performance of a lone ranger. It is significant to appreciate that nobody owns a monopoly of knowledge. Therefore, the chance of satisfactory execution of duty in a group setting by far exceeds that of a solo attempt, based on the scope of available knowledge. The benefits of a richly varied team are not confined to the technical know-how only. Teams can boost performance by way of pivoting each other emotionally. The incidence of duty and obligations on an individual has more impact on them when they are alone than when in a group setting. Teams lessen the burden and make it appear lighter and manageable. The sense of collective responsibility has an effect of making job demands tolerable and manageable thus less strenuous to the involved parties. In essence, even when the particular tasks are in their true nature draining, diversity of team dynamics is able to diffuse its enormity and reduce it to an ordinary task. According to top management at Ford Motor Company, diversity of their workforce has fuelled sustainability of their long term brand in the turbulent motor vehicle industry (Ford Corporate, n.d.). Given the stiff competition from German and Japanese car makers, Ford still retains its global foothold. The magnitude of the work involved has necessitated the formation of diversified work teams to pool intelligence and create authentic products. A case in hand is in the designing of the cars. Given the global distribution of their clientele, Ford has decided not to narrow down its design experts to a homogenous pool of experts. On the contrary, it has sourced for a more diversified cadre of professionals who are a fair representation of the interests of their clients. There are women, nationals of different countries, lovers of flamboyant cars and others representing other interests. The result of that

U.S. Consumer Wages, Income, Wealth and Savings Research Paper

U.S. Consumer Wages, Income, Wealth and Savings - Research Paper Example Wealth is the value of all assets owned by a person, household or nation net of all liabilities owed at a given point. Wealth can be in the form of real estate, businesses, liquid assets, money market funds, stocks, bonds and other securities. However, having great wealth is not an indication of great intelligence. A person, community or country is said to be wealthy if they posses more assets than liabilities (Wolff2 34). People often believe that it is not possible to accumulate wealth unless your earning is high. But in fact it is possible to create wealth on low income and not to have wealth despite a high income. The following are key ways of accumulating wealth (Marquis 14): Avoiding Debts In order to create more wealth one needs to have a net surplus each month. But when one borrows, he or she essentially uses his or her next month’s income to pay for this month’s expenses. Therefore, in order to get wealthy you must first clear your debts because once you are debt free, you can accumulate wealth. Diversification By putting all your shares in one company or even a single sector, you are likely to lose everything you have accumulated incase something goes wrong in that sector. Diversification makes it possible for individuals to have more than one source of income, and so they can have more wealth. Therefore to become wealthy, one must diversify across all categories of investment. Retirement funds It is very hard to work at an older age and make more wealth. Therefore to continue accumulating more wealth, one can save for his or her old age. Another ways of saving for pension is to open an individual retirement or a personal pension account. These may vary in rule but may come in tax breaks which will be a valuable boost for the funds. Emergency saving One should build up emergency savings to cover for any emergencies that may crop up in future. Even th e most prosperous people can hit a bad spell of bad luck such as illness or loss of a job and become in need of money. Therefore, to prepare for these cases one should aside some money that he or she can easily access. Monitoring your investments By monitoring your investments you are in a better place to recognize any losses that are likely to arise from the business you are engaged in. People who lose money that they have invested are those who do not monitor their investments but instead adopt an unthinkingly attitude to their portfolios. Consumer Wages and Income Income is the term that is used to describe the flow of money over a specific period and it is in the form of rates. Income is what people get through work, social welfare and retirement benefits. The United States Bureau of Census defines income as what an individual receives â€Å"on a regular basis before payments for personal income taxes, social security, union dues and medicare deductions†. Some of the fact ors affecting income levels in the US include: profession, education, wealth and race (Ryu and Slottje 67). Most Americans derive their incomes from their jobs. Professional earnings are normally determined by the law of supply and demand. Some professional specialties are normally in high demand but in low supply, thus making their income levels to be high. The complexity of a certain profession also determines the income for an individual. For instance, people who are involved in high-level complex Over the last three years, consumer price wages have had to deal with the issue of inflation, which

Cross cultural management in international business Essay - 1

Cross cultural management in international business - Essay Example The management plays a critical role in entrenching diverse in the system. The MNCs are a good example of organisations that must embrace diversity in their organisational structure. These organisations employ most of their staff from a different cultural background (because the top manager may come from their headquarters) hence the need for considering diversity. For that reason, diversity is a critical component for the survival of organisations (e.g. MNCs). The essay will assess the importance of diversity in the workforce, how diversity influences the success of MNCs using the case of Carlos Ghosn of Nissan Renault and Rattan Tata of Tata Group, two phenomenon individuals who transformed their MNCs. Besides, the paper will present how the MNCs transition to embracing diversity. The markets have become so diverse that organisations must find diverse approaches to penetrating such markets and satisfy their consumer demands (Makela, et al., 2011). The MNCs are of particular interest because they have a network of branches that interacts with customers from different cultural backgrounds. The diversity of employees brings the advantage of different employees from cultures to devise appropriate ways of remaining relevant (Harter et al. 2010; PwC Saratoga, 2010). The global market has become so competitive that organisations must devise novel ways of competing to access certain markets (Makela, et al., 2011; PwC Saratoga, 2011). When organisations are making entry into a diverse cultural market, they must have a strategy of incorporating the concept of diversity to gain access and respond to the customers’ demands while remaining competitive (Caldwell, 2003; Doremus et al., 1998). Therefore, the concept of diversity seems pivotal in leveraging the competi tive advantage (Ariely et al., 2005). Organisations that have diverse workforce bring in new innovative

Supply Chain Strategic Management For Nike Marketing Essay

Supply Chain Strategic Management For Nike Marketing Essay Nike, Inc was founded in 1964 in the state of Oregon, US. Nike is the largest seller of athletic footwear and apparel in the world. Its main business is in the design, development and marketing of high quality footwear, apparel, and equipment and accessory products. Products are sold to retail accounts via NIKE owned stores and online sales, independent distributors and licensees in 170 countries across globe. Footwear and apparel products are manufactured outside Unites States while equipments are manufactured both in US and outside US. Nikes products are produced in factories owned/operated by independent contractors Nikes footwear products dominates its market share and footwears are designed for aquatic activities, baseball, cheerleading, football, golf, lacrosse, outdoor activities, skateboarding, tennis, volleyball, walking, wrestling, and other athletic and recreational uses. (Nike 2010) Nikes accessories and apparels are designed to match its footwear and performance equipment like bags, socks, sport balls, eyewear, timepieces, electronic devices, bats, gloves, protective equipment, golf clubs are also manufactured. Plastic products are produced in Nikes self owned subsidiary, NIKE IHM, Inc. Other wholly owned subsidiaries of Nike are Cole Haan, Converse, Hurley and Umbro. Supply Chain Process Overview: Business related operations like marketing and contracts with the factories for product development activities is executed in Nikes headquarters in Beaverton, Oregon. Nikes global operations are largely categorized into four geographic segments United States; Europe, Middle East and Africa (EMEA); Asia Pacific and Americas (includes Canada, Mexico and other Latin American countries of Chile, Brazil and Argentina). Nike has outsourced its manufacturing activities across globe since mid-1970s. And the products are developed at factories owned and managed by business partners. (SCM are ERP Implementation at Nike: From Failure to Success 2005) United States Market: Fig 1.1: Nike US Retail Stores Source: Nike Annual Report Fig 1.2: Nike Non-US Retail Stores Source: Nike Annual Report plastic and metal hardware, and specialized performance fabrics designed to repel rain, retain heat, or efficiently transport body moisture. NIKEs contractors and suppliers buy raw materials in bulk. Most raw materials are available in the countries where manufacturing takes place. Supply Chain Framework: The three components of SCM framework are Supply chain network structure, supply chain business processes and the supply chain management components. The three vital components of supply chain network structure are members of the supply chain, structural dimension of the network and various types of process links across the supply chain(Lambert and Cooper 2000). Key members involved in supply chain should be identified. Primary members of a supply chain to be all those autonomous companies or strategic business units who carry out value-adding activities (operational and/or managerial) in the business processes designed to produce a specific output for a particular customer or market .In contrast, supporting members are companies that simply provide resources, knowledge, utilities, or assets for the primary members of the supply chain (Lambert and Cooper 2000). Structural dimension of the network assist in evaluating and managing the supply chain. Horizontal structure means the numbe r of tiers across supply chain and vertical structure means number of suppliers/customers within each tier. Any changes in structure impacts supply chain and proper analysis should be done before making modifications. Successful SCM needs a shift from handling individual processes/functions to integrating activities across supply chain. GSCF identified eight supply chain processes Customer service management, Customer relationship management, Demand management, Order fulfilment, Manufacturing flow management, Procurement, Product development and commercialization and Returns. There exist 4 types of links in business functionalities. They are Managed business process links, monitored business process links, not-managed business process links, and not-member business process links. Managed process links are links that the firm views them as vital to integrate and deal with. These are the links that exists between firm and tier1 customers/suppliers. Monitored process links are albeit not crucial, but vital to the firm and they are the links existing with other member companies. Not-Managed process links are not crucial and the firm is not directly involved in managing them but assign the job of managing the links to member factories. Non member process links are linkages between the firm and other non-members of the supply chain. The nine management components for successful SCM of Nike would be planning and control; work structure; organization structure; product flow facility structure; information flow facility structure; management methods; power and leadership structure; risk and reward structure; and culture and attitude. Supply Chain Process and Objectives of Nike: Precision : The objective is to satisfy customers through product delivery and information accuracy. Nike follows few methods to measure precision DIFOT (Delivery in Full- on Time) and Time to provide resolution to customer queries. The products are produced in factories based on the orders and the developed finished goods are consolidated and then distributed by air/water/road ways to NIKE Customer service centres Fig 1.3: Nike Delivery process Fig 1.4: Nike Apparel and Footwear Product Flow Fig 1.5: Nike Previous Supply Chain Model and desired Simplified Model Fig 1.6: Pictorial representation of Inventory management Fig 1.7: Life Cycle Cost Analysis Fig 1.8: Supply Chain Objectives of Nike Nikes i2 implementation failure : Supply and demand issues need to be paid utmost attention particularly in retail industry as it has to deal with wide choices for each product category like size, color etc. The huge SKU which signifies varied inventory pictures a hurdle to supply chain management. The manufacturing cycle before the implementation of software solutions is generally 9 months. Hence the need for demand planning system arose and Manugistics software was implemented. Due to various limitations in the software, in march 1999, Nike decided to implement software from i2 Technologies for managing its supply and demand. The desired functionality of the software was to match its supply with demand by mapping out the production of varied products at manufacturing units. The module should have been implemented and linked to ERP and other backend functionalities but however Nike implemented software from i2 using the legacy systems rather than implementing as part of its SAP ERP Project (SCM and ERP Implementation at Nike: From Failure to Success 2005 ) In 2000, after the implementation of i2 software, NIKE stated that it resulted in stock pile up for slower-selling shoes and shortages for high demand shoes. Nike blamed i2 software for poor planning forecast which was actually developed to reduce production days. Investors believed Nikes blame game and the shares of i2 dropped severely. But i2 managers claimed that Nikes issues were not linked to software but the way the software was implemented. They did not use the standard template offered by i2 for its footwear division. But i2 accepted the blame of not being forceful in compelling Nike to stick onto their implementation methodology and the bitter truth was i2 desired to solve Nikes complex issue of tracking every shoe model it manufactures. Nike experienced some major issue and hence i2 thought resolving those legitimate issues would really serve as value addition to i2 Technologies. Joshua Greenbaum, a consultant stated that i2 software is not known for technical failures but it is well known for its complexity and the issue here is that Nike went go-alive with the new software even before they were ready to go live which resulted in major chaos. Lessons learnt by Nike : Implementation issues in supply chain can have disastrous effect in Supply chain process of an organization and hence great care should be taken while implementing software solutions for managing supply chain. If a standard template is customized as per the clients requirement then the service provider should monitor that the client adheres to implementation procedures as instructed. If a solution is being offered to address complex issues, then the system should not go-live before appropriate testing to check if all the needs of clients are better served. Premature switching has devastating effect on the organization which Nike has learned at its cost. Fig:1.9: Nikes latest SAP IT Solution to manage supply chain functionalities Nike owns a system Futures wherein the retailers place orders 3-6 months in advance which does assist in demand and forecast planning. But the scenario is different for it Football Team Sports (FTS) category which constitutes 10% of its overall market. Its FTS line comprises about 100 varied styles and it uses a unique fabric Dri-Fit that absorbs sweat. Usually sports team places the order, expects delivery in a weeks time, demands more customized options and hence prestocked items doesnt hold good for all customers. The challenge for FTS apparel lies in its supply chain. Nike has to seek ways to reduce current lead time like modifying demand planning/ forecast system, shifting production base from Asia to Europe and preordering undyed fabric called greige and contracts with strategic suppliers/manufacturers can result in faster delivery even amidst last minute orders. (Nike:Just Do it But How? 2009) Evans and Danks model : Fig 1.10: Evans-Danks Model Source: Evans and Danks (1998) Strategic supply chain management Creating shareholder value by aligning supply chain strategy with business strategy. In: Gattorna, (ed.): Strategic supply chain alignment, Hampshire: Gower, pp. 18-38 Sourcing Strategy : Global Commodity Chain (GCC) perspective provides greater insights on design, distribution and marketing activities. Nike has captured a greater place in US athletic footwear market albeit its manufacturing activities are held overseas, formulating Nike to be archetype of global sourcing strategy. Its successful execution of sourcing strategy can be best known in Nikes effort to retain its power and authority over its highly profitable nodes of the footwear commodity chain which offers them the strategic and geographical mobility. Nikes distribution network was broadened by forming strategic alliance with retail outlets. It shifted its manufacturing base from high cost production countries to low cost countries like Taiwan, South Korea, Asia etc. The merits of producing goods in developing nations have to be weighed against the demerits of other costs like sourcing, production flexibility, transportation and storage. Nike took advantage of global sourcing as a way to reduce cost and in 1980s relocated its plants to Taiwan, South Korea and in 1990s to China, Indonesia and Vietnam. In 2006,over a half a million workers were engaged in 700 factories in 51 countries, although the firm had around 23000 employees in its payroll.(Lechner and Boli 2004). The efficient management of sourcing strategy obtained Nike to manufacture goods as low cost and thereby its market share and profitability increased. Nikes Futures system is order and planning system which serves to resolve inventory and financial bottlenecks. Nike had more flexibility options like modifying design specifications by dealers which offered competitive advantage over its competitors like Adidas. Donaghu and Barff categorised and identified 3 sets of Nikes factories developed partners, volume producers and developing sources. Developed partners are Nikes first/upper tire suppliers who are accountable for innovative and stylish/premier models. Volume Producers produce products in large quantities but selected products. Developing sources are recent factories that have enticed Nike due to low labor cost. Various steps are involved in making a atheletic shoe designing, model and pattern making, molding of soles, material cutting, stitching, lasting, finishing, final inspection and packaging which requires little skill. Hence unskilled workforce and lower wage rate are quintessential in manufacturing shoes competitively. Nike did not own a factory in Asia but had contracts with partners who manufacture apparels and footwear. Nike took the ownership of the products only after they are finished and delivered from factories. Fig 1.11: Members within Nikes Supply Chain Process Fig 1.12: Nike Brand Factories across globe Source: Nike website Demand Flow Strategy: Nike uses Futures Order system to manage its supply with demand. Nike sells its product through various channels Nike owned stores, online, independent distributors and licensees. Nike doesnt own a factory but outsources its manufacturing activities to subcontrators across globe. Nikes manufacturers deploys Just-in-Time principles to manage inventories. Supply Chain Integration Strategy: Information integration, Decision integration, Financial integration, Operational integration and Physical or Virtual links are the key factors of Supply chain integration. Nike uses SAP software solutions to manage its supply chain processes. Nike never manufactures but establishes contracts with subcontractors across globe. Since 1972, Sojitz Corporation of America (Sojitz America), a large Japanese trading company has been offering financial assistance in exports-imports of Nikes products. It offered purchasing and financing services for Nikes goods in Argentina, Uruguay, Canada, Chile, Brazil, India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, South Africa, China, Korea, and Thailand, excluding products produced and sold in the same country. (Nike 10K Report, 2010) . Any disruption/failure from it would affect Nikes power to buy goods from suppliers and to sell goods to customers. FishBone Diagram: Fig 1.13: FishBone Diagram for Nike Time Compression: Time is a critical factor in todays supply chain. Time compression can be defined as reducing the amount of time taken for a process in a business operation ie inputs is being transformed to expected/desired outputs in a process but in a compressed period of time. To achieve time compression for the holistic supply chain, activities that does not add value to the process should be identified which is achieved by removing waste and refocusing on the process steps. The horizontal and vertical structure which forms the basis of supply chain must be properly integrated. The structural and infrastructural linkages in a supply chain depicts how efficiently resources, inventory are utilized. (Beesley 1996) Few generic principles to identify and understand supply chain process: The end users in a supply chain are customers who demand speed and adhere to delivery. Nike customers demand variety in products ranges and hence Nike strives to manufactures wide range of products but maintains a minimal stock so as to accommodate many varieties. Customers are not willing to pay extra cash for speedy delivery because similar services are offered by its competitors also. Many firms are just order qualifiers and not order winners. The call for JIT inventory can be satisfied by maintaining correct proportion of stocks in stores. Positioning of resources and inventory also plays a vital role in maintaining a optimal supply chain. Burbidge and Forrester states that the effect of demand variation in a supply chain oscillates out of control and impacts the lower level of supply chain. Fig 1.14: Internet Driven Supply Chain Model Wireless Technology and RFID are used by Nike at a minimum level. Efforts are taken to widely utilize it across its factories. The usage of RFID however raised some privacy concerns and hence Nike is striving hard to resolve such issues and trying to make use of the technology in the best possible way. Globalisation does impact Nike and offers many challenges. Global sourcing and reduced tariffs in developing countries have created complicated webs in supply chain. Infrastructures in developing economies are not well developed and hence it requires partnerships with 3PL providers who possesses better knowledge on market and in few cases Nike has to build its distribution centres. Periodically detailed research has to be done to understand infrastructure issues. Consumer expectation varies in different countries. One size fits all rule doesnt apply anymore. Customization plays a vital role in acquiring customer satisfaction. Product proliferation challenges can be tackled by being more responsive and quick in addressing the needs of the end users. Nike needs to adapt lean and agile manufacturing programs based on their volume-variety formulae. Retailing customers demand for shorter lead times and faster inventory turns and they make attempts to push the products upstream. As a reciprocative action, Nike offers out-of-stock and replenishment programs but should strive to improvise/speed-up time to market and reduce lead times. Conflict exists between cost and flexibility. Manufacturing lead time is longer due to technical complexity associated with fabrics and products require complex innovation which ultimately results in cost of time and delays. Supply Chain Integration Issues and Recommendations for Nike The key thing to focus is to understand the nature of the demand for the products in supply chain. Functional products are those products that fulfil minimum needs, dont alter to a large extent over time, possesses stable and expected demand and lengthy life cycles. Innovative products are expected to have short life cycle and unpredictable demand. Innovative products supply chain differs from functional products supply chain. Two types of supply chain are Physically efficient supply chain and Market Responsive supply chain. The below table shows the attributes of two supply chain. To develop an ideal supply chain strategy, the nature of demand for products is plotted against their respective supply chain. The 2*2 matrix thus depicts if the existing supply chain matches the right demand for the products. The supply chain strategies are perfect if the functional products possess efficient supply chain and innovative products possesses responsive supply chain. Physically Efficient Process Market Responsive Process Primary Purpose Supply predictable, demand efficiently at the lowest possible cost. Respond quickly to unpredictable demand inorder to minimize stockouts, markdowns and obsolete inventory Manufacturing focus Maintain high average utilization rate Deploy excess buffer capacity Inventory strategy Generate high turns and minimize inventory throughout the supply chain Deploy significant buffer stocks of parts or finished goods. Lead Time focus Shorten lead time as long as it doesnt increase cost Invest aggressively to reduce lead time Approach to choosing suppliers Select primarily for cost and quality Select primarily for speed, flexibility and quality Product design strategy Maximize performance and minimize cost Use modular design inorder to postpone product differentiation as long as possible. Table 1.1: Attributes of Physically efficient and Responsive Supply Chain Source: Fisher,M.L., What is the Right Supply Chain for your Product? A simple framework can help you figure out the answer Functional Products Innovative Products Efficient Supply Chain Match Nikes atheletic shoes and casual shoes, sports equipment, apparels and accessories. Mismatch Nikes shoes for diabetic patients, Zoom Air shoes for athletes, high technology sports equipment. Responsive Supply Chain Mismatch Match Table1.2: Nikes product and supply chain positioning matrix Nike should take efforts to shift from upper right hand cell to lower right hand cell. This can be achieved by making few of the products functional and developing a responsive supply chain for the rest of the innovative products. Nike can handle unceratinty by three ways reducing leadtime and becoming agile such that products are produced only when there is market demand; searching for new information that act as indicators and sharing a common platform and components for varied products and demand becoming predictable; hedging against outstanding ambiguity with buffers of inventory (Fisher ) Arcs of Integration: Ragatz et al (1997) claims that the effective integration of suppliers into product value/supply chains will be a key factor for some manufacturers in achieving the improvements necessary to remain competitive.The two types of integration are : delivery integration or forward integration which involves the flow of material between suppliers, manufacturers and customers (Saunders 1997, Trent and Monczka 1998) and Information integration or backward integration that include the effective functioning of IT and flow of data between customers and suppliers (Martin 1992, Trent and Monczka 1998). Tan et al (1998) state that when firms integrate and act as single unit, overall performance is improved across the supply chain. Manufacturers should decide in which direction (customers or towards suppliers) and to which extent (degree of integration), they should undertake upstream and downstream integration. Fig1.15: Integration in the Supply Chain Source: Frohlich, M.T., Westbrook, R., 2001., Arcs of Integration: an international study of supply chain strategies. Journal of Operations Management, 185-200 Fig1.16: Nike striving to move towards outward facing Arc of Integration Source: Frohlich, M.T., Westbrook, R., 2001., Arcs of Integration: an international study of supply chain strategies. Journal of Operations Management, 185-200 C2C Cycle: Fig 1.16: Nikes 5 year trend of Operation Cycle Source: Thomson One Banker Agility is defined as a capability to meet demands of end users and to warrant that supply matches the demand. The key factor is flexibility and time to market in response to demand is crucial. Transforming the supply chain from make-to-sell to make-to-order is the desire of any organization that wants to gain competitive advantage via supply chain management. Nikes objective is centralization and it is achieved by information sharing through the effective implementation of IT. Nikes claims its lead time is 6 months due to technical complexity associated with producing fabrics and products. In this competitive world, 6 months is a wide gap for any rival to gain access competitive advantage. Nike should adopt following ways to reduce lead time gap. Postponement Strategy: Postponement or delayed configuration is a way of manufacturing products in common platforms, components or modules but the final assembly or customization does not happen until the final market destination and or customer requirement is known (Christopher 2000). Inventory levels can be maintained at a generic level which results in lower stock keeping variants and flexibility it offers in greater. Forecasting is easier at basic level than for a final product. Customizing a product locally means more variety at less cost which paves way for mass customization. Through Localization, postponement strategy is fully achieved which implies that the final product is finished in the local region. The hurdle for efficient SCM is to build lean strategies till the decoupling point and agile strategies further than that point (Christopher 2000). Decoupling point is the point at which demand diffuse through the supply chain. The flow of product upto the decoupling point should be forecast driven and the flow of product after the decoupling point should be demand driven (Christopher 2000). The two decoupling points are material decoupling point where inventory is stocked as its basic form and it should continue as far downstream as likely ; information decoupling point which should be available as far upstream as likely to which data about demand diffuses. Nike should seek ways to handle the two decoupling points thereby becoming more agile than competitors and reducing Bullwhip or Forrester effect. In most of the processes it is the lead time of the suppliers that restricts the firm to be more agile to customers demand. Order to Delivery Cycle: Order cycle time is defined as the time consumed from placement of order by customers to delivery of the product to them. The components of order to delvery cycle are order communication, order entry and processing, order picking or production, transportation, customer receiving. Each of these steps consumes time and any bottlenecks associated with any of the processes would result in increased cycle time. Optimum Production Technology categorizes any activity as bottleneck and non-bottleneck. Nike should focus on bottlenecks to which capacity can be reduced and set-up times can be reduced. The firm should also focus on non-bottlenecks in a similar fashion. SCOR and DCOR model: Supply Chain Operations Research Model is used to analyse the current position of the organizations business processes and functions. It possesses a set of metrics to be evaluated and can be compared with the benchmark data. Design channel Operations Research Model links business processes and functions, metrics, good practices and technology attributes into a single unified model to support communication within design chain partners and to improve the effectiveness of extended supply chain. Sustainability: Nike has taken steps towards sustainable business and the need of the hour is to take proactive steps by focusing on sustainable manufacturing, sustainable product development and developing a sustainable marketplace. Nike should take efforts to identify closed loop models and processes which would enhance sustainability across supply chain. Nike must follow an integrated approach in tackling supply chain by fusing lean, energy, water, waste and compliance teams into one model: sustainable manufacturing and sourcing. Sustainability is the path to forthcoming profitability. (Nike Corporate Responsibility Report 2009 ) Nike deals with many contractors and hence Nike should seek long term sourcing consolidation strategy and rationalize its supply chain functionalities. Nike has to take steps to build a sustainable base , align with strategic manufacturers who are able to deliver high end products and are highly innovative, building relationships with contractors willing to adhere to Nikes corporate responsibility. Fig 1.17: Nikes Supply Chain towards Sustainability Source: Nike Corporate Responsibility Report Environmental Impacts: Waste is produced at every step of supply chain. In FY2006, Nike conducted waste mapping study and discovered that 75% of waste is generated from supply chain activities outside factories and when measured by weight, about 40% of the purchased materials end up as waste. One-third of waste footprint is generated from retail packaging and from shipping packaging. Nike operates 5 waste management centres in 4 countries and about 50 products are transported to material vendors so as to recycle them to materials from which Nike repurchases. Nike should focus to utilize more waste effectively to sustainable uses. The firm should seek ways to reduce waste in design stage rather than seeking ways to reduce waste in downstream supply which would decrease costs and waste materials being generated. Fig 1.18: Percentage of Waste generated across Nikes supply Chain Process Source: Nike Corporate Responsibility Report Fig 1.19: Nikes Reuse-a-Shoe Program Source: Nike Corporate Responsibility Report Fig 1.20: Greenhouse gas emissions across various supply chain process of Nike Source: Nike Corporate Responsibility Report Supply Chain Mapping Tools: Various supply chain mapping functionalities are available which can be utilized by Nike to determine its current position and future growth prospects. Demand Density Mapping: Sales Territory Mapping: Gross Margin Map: Customer/DC Allocation Map: Isochrone Mapping: Centre of gravity mapping: Table 1.3: Supply Chain Mapping Tools Source: Types of Supply Chain Map, 2007. Nike should manage the business process links based on its objective such as product variety, improvising quality, lowering cost across supply chain. Number of links should be monitored and managed with great care any decision to change links should be well analysed before incorporating amendments. Owing to high variability in customers expectations, Nike should focus more on demand management to gain a sustainable competitive position in the volatile market. Nike can utilize Point-Of-Sale (POS) systems and key customer data to effectively manage demand and supply thereby lowering uncertainty and offering smooth flow across supply chain. Order fulfilment activities should be given high priority and customer needs should be satisfied greatly which requires proper integration with Nikes manufacturers, distributors and logistics providers. Nike should seek to partner with fourth party logistic providers depending on the marketplace and other benefits. Innovation is the lifeblood of Nike to stay competitive and hence new product development process needs high attention. Nikes should identify end users articulated and unarticulated needs; identify strategic suppliers and forms efficient links for a smooth supply chain. Nike should leap forward towards Joint planning and control approach so as to effectively operationalize its functions globally. Nike has failed to monitor its contractors factories who have employed underage kids and havent adhered to minimum wage rates. Owing to this, Nikes brand names have been associated with child labour and Nike has to face loads of labour rights issues which defamed its brand. Nike has been really doing well in managing its supply chain integration. However if it maps and analyzes every bit of linkages across the chain and takes corrective actions, it can gain a well established position in the market and thereby reducing the cost by a large amount. Conclusion: The mapping of SCM process results in understanding the existing issues and paves way for defining solutions. Identifying the critical members of the supply chain, kind of functionalities to be connected and what nature/degree of integration is necessary for each link are key factors that require deep insight. The goal of SCM is to create the highest possible value not only for the specific firm but across the supply chain including end-consumers. Aligning the product supply with their appropriate supply chain is also vital for increasing sales. Amplification caused by uncertainty can be reduced

Sex Roles and Gender Bias in Early Childhood Education Essay -- Stereo

Sex role stereotyping and gender bias permeate everyday life. Children learn about sex roles very early in their lives, probably before they are 18 months old, certainly long before they enter school.(Howe, 1). The behaviors that form these sex roles often go unnoticed but their effect is immeasurable. Simple behaviors like: the color coding of infants (blue & pink), the toys children are given, the adjectives used to describe infants (boys: handsome, big, strong; girls: sweet, pretty, precious), and the way we speak to and hold them are but a few of the ways the sex roles are introduced. These behaviors provide the basis for the sex roles and future encouragement from parents and teachers only reinforce the sex roles. Toys, literature, media, and films also encourage sex roles. Males are depicted as "doing", while females are always "receiving." In this paper, 5 articles focusing on sex roles were used. The articles look at the damaging effects of sex role stereotyping, and some ways the sex roles are accentuated in the schools. The research on sex role stereotyping is currently growing. There are many theories regarding its existence. Some attribute the sex roles to the media, literature and society, but it is a combination of all these factors. Despite the best of intentions by parents to not encourage the sex roles, at the time of kindergarten, children will demonstrate behaviors specific to their sex. It is believed that this phenomenon occurs because the children know that they are either a boy or a girl but are trying to figure out exactly what that means (Seid, 114). The behaviors that children seem to learn do have gender specific characteristics. Examples of male appropriate behavior includes: aggression, independence and curiosity. Female behaviors reflect the opposite of the male behaviors: passivity, dependence and timidity (Howe, 3). Parents have a strong impact on the sex roles that children acquire. If the sex roles are stereotypical in the home then the children will imitate the behavior that is observed in the home. Simple, parental behaviors such as who drives and who pays for dinner influence the children’s perceptions of sex roles (Seid, 115). This issue has been extensively researched. Howe states " Schools function to reinforce the sexual stereotypes that children have been taught by their parents, fri... ...nantly dictated by the upper class, Caucasian male. This excludes well over half the population of the nation. Our country is saying that essentially, just a few of us, the elite, will govern and make the rules, but we expect everyone; regardless, of how these rules may affect your life to obey them. That is putting a number of our citizens at a high risk for failure. Society needs to change to accommodate the growing needs of its people. Although most of the research seems to indicate that sex role stereotyping permeates our society and our schools, there are ways to discourage children from falling into the stereotypical roles. It will take the voices of everyone to make a change in the way that society portrays boys and men, girls and women. We are doing an injustice to our children by encouraging these roles. Educators need to become increasingly aware of their practices in their classrooms. It is very easy to fall into the trap of segregating the sexes; all of us have to support and encourage our children that they can do and be anything. When enough people believe that the sex roles can be diminished, then society, the media and the government will follow.